BSBOHS405B+Unit+Overview

=Introduction= The interpretation of the term ‘emergency’ varies, depending on a person’s background and experience. In general, an emergency is a situation which harms (or threatens to harm) people, property or the environment. It is generally accepted that an emergency applies to an incident or circumstance which causes the facility’s emergency plan to be activated. Therefore, each facility developing an emergency plan will need to define those circumstances that constitute an emergency for its specific operation and activities. This definition should also identify the point at which an emergency ceases to be an emergency. Emergency procedures are a series of steps that need to be followed when responding to an emergency. When defining these procedures the limitations of personnel in performing tasks, particularly while under extreme stress. Emergency planning plays a key role in this cycle of emergency management focussing primarily on the phases of emergency preparedness and response.

//Activity//
Go to any Australian University web site (eg www.unsw.edu.au or www.uow.edu.au) and access a copy of their Emergency Procedures Manual. Print one out (UNSW appears to be a best practice model) and familiarise yourself with the content in preparation for studying this unit.

=Identify potential emergencies= 

A knowledge of OHS hazards and standards applied to identify causes of potential emergencies
Knowledge of OHS hazards and applicable codes and standards for the workplace play a vital part in the: Such standards may include international, Australian and industry-specific standards. Information on the potential hazards at a facility will help to provide an understanding of the impacts on people, property and the environment of different types and levels of emergencies. The emergency planning process should identify all hazards which can reasonably be expected to initiate, or contribute to an emergency. This could involve identifying hazards of different types: Hazard identification exercises may reveal a whole spectrum of incidents which can significantly impact on people, property and the environment. 
 * identification of possible events (what type of incidents might arise)
 * identification of the possible effects of the events on site, on neighbouring sites, on local residents and others, and on the environment
 * Hazards arising from hazardous materials;
 * Hazards arising from activities or equipment
 * Natural hazards that could impact on the safe operation of the facility.

Input of stakeholders
The roles, responsibilities, function and needs of all key stakeholders within the facility need to be considered. Employees, managers, supervisors, employees including OHS representatives and committee members should be consulted. Not only does this ensure that intimate knowledge of the facility and its operation is incorporated in the hazard identification and development of emergency plans; it also generates a sense of community and ownership. Consultation with neighbours should result in a two-way flow of concerns and ideas. It is essential that all parties identify and gain an understanding of the potential impacts of an incident on other operations or storage areas. Consultation should identify the need of the neighbouring facility or community and address the difficulties likely to be encountered. 

Appropriate specialist advisors and emergency agencies identified and liaised with to identify causes of potential emergencies
The principles of OHS statutes make no distinction or allowance when outlining accountabilities between normal and abnormal operating modes. All of the following have some accountability and therefore can contribute in the identification of hazards and for ensuring the adequacy of the emergency response arrangements and include:
 * Designers and manufacturers
 * Importers and/or suppliers
 * Installers and erectors
 * Owners and operators
 * Employees

//Activity//
Obtain a copy of your organisation’s Emergency Procedures Manual and compare it with the one you downloaded from an Australian University website. Which appears the more comprehensive, the more user friendly. Which would you recommend? Why?

External agencies and other groups
Police, fire and other emergency services, local government, safety, health and environmental agencies (government and non government) should be consulted to assist in the identification of potential hazards and incidents and throughout the emergency planning process.

//Local government//
Local government is responsible for identifying all the hazards and threats in its area and developing and implementing plans to address these hazards. This is usually achieved by an inter-agency committee. By liaisons with such groups will ensure that major emergencies at a facility are incorporated into the regional plan and are complementary with arrangements made for other types of hazards

//Police//
The police department is the authority responsible for the command, control and coordination of all off-site actions in the event of a declared emergency with off-site implications. Members of the police force will:
 * establish a liaison communications centre in, or near to, the existing emergency control centre
 * set up roadblocks to control all entry/exit points on the periphery of the declared danger area
 * evacuate and register all persons deemed to be at risk outside the company site.

//Fire Brigade//
In addition to its normal fire fighting role, the fire brigade is responsible for the decontamination of roads and other surface areas off-site.

//Ambulance service//
The ambulance service is responsible for the transport and first aid for injured persons.

//Health department//
The Department of Health is responsible for safeguarding the health of the public and for instituting, under police control, any necessary control measures and in particular:
 * Providing independent radiological, biological and/or toxicological surveys
 * Providing advice to the police on off-site decontamination measures
 * Providing any necessary medical care for persons affected by the emergency.

//State emergency services//
The state emergency services welfare section functions include:
 * immediate care for the homeless, including the provision of food, accommodation and clothing
 * assistance in major evacuations
 * establishing and operating welfare centres until community services are available.

//Activity//
Go to www.workcover.nsw.gov.au and access their suggested procedures to develop a risk register and apply it to your workplace in preparation of developing a risk register. 

Risk register developed to identify potential emergencies and their causes
Potential hazards and a brief description of the type of emergency together with identified causes are best recorded in a register. A systematic analysis of the above will help to identify typical incidents and resultant consequences. It is important that key people at a facility identify potential emergencies by assessing the potential impacts of the identified hazards associated with the facility. This will provide the basis for informed decisions to be made in the early stage of an emergency and for advice to be provided to the emergency services.

//Activity//
Read Chapter 9 of ‘//Planning Occupational Health & Safety – a guide to OHS risk management’// CCH 7th Edition 2006 to gain an appreciation of the range of risks and the level of risk inherent in them which will help in your compilation of a risk register.

=Identify options for initial response= 

Major types of emergencies are categorised
Emergencies are defined according to type on the basis of the materials and activities involved. The type of emergency will determine the potential impact of the incident on people, property and the environment. These issues should be addressed in the process of defining the hazards. Examples of types of emergencies include: Initiating and secondary events must be considered for all these emergencies, eg an LPG explosion or fire which causes a nearby vessel to fail and release flammable or toxic materials, or a windstorm that causes structural damage to large containers which results in a liquid spill. Risks may be higher at specific times and under specific circumstances, eg when loading or unloading, during maintenance work or when contractors are being used on a site. Effective risk management requires assessment of all on-site hazards as well as those that may arise from external sources. 
 * fires
 * explosions
 * spills (chemical liquids, solids, radioactive or biological materials)
 * gas leaks (flammable or toxic)
 * natural events such as floods, grass fires, bush or forest fires, earthquakes, cyclones, wind storms, tsunamis (seismic sea waves), exotic stock/plant disease, human epidemic/plague, and land slip/subsidence
 * impact events such as those involving road vehicles, railway vehicles and aircraft
 * civil disturbances such as riots and bomb threats
 * terrorist attacks
 * other external events such as fires, explosions or toxic release from a neighbouring facility, and loss of services (eg power, water or other utilities).

Actions required to contain or limit potential emergencies are identified
It may not be feasible, or appropriate, to develop individual systems to respond to every potential incident identified in the hazard identification process. The challenge is to prepare a simple and effective plan that is generic in nature, but provides an effective system for responding to any type or level of emergency. One method of achieving this is by way of a screening technique to produce a representative set of incidents. The following steps will assist when considering this process: In preparing representative set of incidents, it must be remembered that emergency planning prepares for events that are not only more likely (such as small gas leaks, failure of single units), but also extreme events (such as the catastrophic failure of a reaction or storage vessel). These catastrophic events would have a high impact even though the likelihood of their occurrence is extremely remote. This consideration of a broad range of possibilities will enable the development of a system capable of responding to any level and type of emergency.
 * Eliminate localised incidents that would not require activation of the emergency plan
 * Consolidate incidents that have similar materials, inventories, activities and type of emergency response action
 * Select an incident to represent each group identified

//Activity//
You have already read Chapter 9 of ‘Planning Occupational Health & Safety – a guide to OHS risk management’ CCH 7th Edition 2006. Now focus on emergency preparedness on pages 207-213. 

Actions required to limit effect on personnel, property and environment identified
Emergency planning should define actions and emergency functions aimed at protecting people, property and the environment. These functions should be defined, taking into account the facility response requirements and capabilities (ie the nature of the operation, the types of emergencies identified and the number of personnel available). Broad areas to be addressed by emergency functions include: These areas may be addressed in several ways. For example: Appropriate communications should be extended to all stakeholders (eg contractors, visitors and neighbours) 
 * Responding to control the emergency
 * Limiting damage through the spread and impact of an emergency on adjoining processes, materials, property and the environment
 * Protecting the health and safety of all personnel on site
 * Protecting the environment
 * Alerting people to the emergency and communicating adequately with all stakeholders during the emergency
 * Accessing the right information
 * Controlling the entire emergency scene and the whole facility
 * Facility emergency response functions involve determining the measures required to reduce or terminate identified causes of the emergency (including fire suppression, isolation of fuel etc). These tasks should be in the plan and state the actions to be taken before the arrival of the emergency services and should also consider staff variations (eg unstaffed facilities, night shift).
 * The damage control function aims to minimise damage. Consideration should be given to people, property and the environment in the vicinity of the incident, and in other parts of the facility and neighbouring facilities.
 * The protection of the health and safety of all personnel on site may be addressed by functions relating to search and rescue, roll-call, and evacuation. In addition to considering the protection of on-site personnel, the protection of people involved in the emergency response need to be considered.
 * Short and long term impacts on the environment arising from an incident need to be considered and specific duties identified such as:
 * Closing drain valves
 * Arranging for earth bonding for liquid spills and control of run off
 * Monitoring of contaminants
 * Liaising with external agencies
 * The communication processes should include the identification of personnel involved, the provision of a communication centre, call signs, and details of the telephone network, including a list of phone numbers and details of communication equipment available etc.
 * User friendly information should be available to assist in managing the emergency including:
 * OHS&E information on hazardous materials
 * Estimates of the consequences and impacts from hazard analysis
 * Maps and plans
 * Community information
 * Information on safety systems and equipment
 * Emergency contacts
 * Facility emergency support should be provided to ensure an emergency centre co-ordinating, provision of supporting information, resources, materials and equipment necessary for the management of the emergency.
 * The management of continued operation of sections not directly impacted by the emergency or alternately the shut down provisions of other plant must be identified.
 * The roles and duties of the person(s) initiating the off-site warning system should be defined. The evacuation of people outside the facility is the responsibility of the police therefore good liaison and procedures with police and emergency services need to be identified.

Requirements for liaison with emergency agencies are identified
Inviting the local emergency services to the workplace under non-emergency situations lets them become familiar with the layout of the workplace, and some of the key personnel. Such visits should at least be annual to enhance better understanding and improve emergency response liaison and procedural effectiveness. During these visits discussions revolve around the operations processes, workplace hazards and existing controls with the view to identifying additional hazard and streamlining liaisons which otherwise may not come to the fore. 

Actions to be taken during emergencies are prioritised
The level at which a hazardous situation should be regarded as an emergency needs to be defined. However, if there is any doubt whether a hazardous situation constitutes an emergency, it should be treated as an emergency. Emergencies can vary in scale. For this reason it is suggested that different levels of emergency be defined for the facility to enable a planned approach to prioritising actions when dealing with an emergency. The actions contained within a emergency procedure will depend on the characteristics of the facility. The procedure should describe the actions to be undertaken, the precautions, the protective clothing and equipment to be used, any special conditions, and the responsibilities and duties of people undertaking these procedures.

=Plan initial emergency response procedures= 

Resources available and required for immediate response are identified
The emergency resources necessary to manage an emergency situation should be identified and provided. Such resources include the facility emergency control centre (FECC), the emergency communication system, the emergency alarm and public warning system and other specialised emergency equipment. The design and provision of emergency resources should consider such matters as their: The availability and location of specialised emergency equipment to support the functions identified in the emergency plan should be indicated on the site layout plan. Details of, and procedures for access to additional equipment from other sources, such as mutual aid facilities, from neighbours and other external sources should be provided. Emergency equipment may consist of: The location of the FECC and any alternative should be nominated. The FECC should be readily accessible and resourced with communication equipment, essential documents, emergency plans and procedures, MSDS and other safety information, location maps and site layout plans readily available, A dedicated FECC may not be necessary for smaller facilities which could use a nominated existing office facility. 
 * safe and accessible location
 * ability to be moved to areas as intended
 * suitability for all tasks for which they are provided
 * readiness for use and ease of use
 * adequacy of estimations of quantities and
 * provision of adequate quantities
 * emergency vehicle
 * self contained breathing apparatus
 * fire fighting equipment and media such as foam etc
 * neutralising agents
 * personnel identification (eg helmets and tabards)
 * protective clothing
 * specialist equipment (eg gas detectors, emergency power generator and lighting)
 * first aid equipment.

Emergency equipment is checked to ensure serviceability, accessibility, cleanliness and correct location
Emergency equipment must be maintained in good working order and accessible at all times. The establishment of a comprehensive checklist and checking procedures completed by trained personnel who are rostered at appropriate intervals will greatly assist in assuring the matter.

//Activity//
From your observations are there any circumstances or (in) action that may hinder or inhibit the use of emergency equipment at your workplace?

Actions required for a number of major types of emergency documented, taking account of standards, current industry practice, specialist advice and input by emergency agencies
The assessment of consequences and impacts of an incident are likely to identify critical or major incidents. The methodology, assumptions and subsequent emergency response actions identified in the analysis of such events should be documented. As discussed earlier the application of available knowledge from existing standards, industry practice and benchmarking against similar organisations is essential. When such knowledge is applied to the development and ongoing maintenance of the emergency plan through regular consultation with operational, technical specialists and emergency agencies the development, implementation and on going maintenance of any emergency plan and procedures will be optimised. 

Training needs and appropriate providers are identified
All personnel, whether or not they hold a position in the emergency organisation structure, should be trained in their roles, responsibilities and duties during an emergency (eg all persons should be trained in evacuation procedures). They should be trained to such a level that, when the emergency plan is activated, they can automatically follow their procedures without necessarily referring to the emergency plan and competently conduct their duties, This may be assisted by the use of palm cards or signs. All persons on site (including visitors and contractors) should be provided with induction, education and ongoing training so that they have a general awareness of the plan and the capability to undertake their roles and responsibilities in the event of an emergency. Training and education should be competency based enabling personnel to develop skills in the use of emergency equipment and a working knowledge of emergency procedures. The training program should provide access to information for designated personnel on the potential impacts of the range of emergencies identified. All persons within the community information area should be provided with information on the appropriate actions to be taken during an emergency and the means by which they will be warned and kept informed during an emergency.

//Activity//
From the Internet find providers of emergency procedures training (eg Chubb, Fire Brigade). Note the range of training courses available and their costs so that you can gain an insight into budgeting and the range of training available.

=Implement initial response procedures= 

Actions for initial response are documented and displayed
Documentation should contain sufficient detail to describe the core elements of the emergency plan. It may include directions on where to find more detailed information not included in the plan, such as information available on palm cards for the use of key personnel during an emergency. The management system should control the distribution, presentation, revision, and accessibility of the plan and any supplementary information, such as palm card instructions, The system should ensure that all official copies of the document are the latest version. All superseded copies should be accounted for and filed or disposed of, as appropriate. Records, which are an integral part of the facility’s management system, should be retained to verify the adequacy of the system. 
 * Circumstances for which records should be kept include:
 * training records
 * desk-top simulations and practical exercises
 * all near misses and incidents
 * testing of the plan including dates, methods, personnel involved and results of testing
 * results of monitoring, audits and management reviews.

Own role in emergency response is known and implemented
Appropriate levels of knowledge and skills should be acquired by facility personnel assuming specified responsibilities. In addition, all personnel, whether or not they hold a position in the emergency organisational structure should be trained in their roles, responsibilities and duties during an emergency (for example all personnel should understand their evacuation procedure). They should be trained to such a level that, when the emergency plan is activated, they can automatically follow their procedures. Assistance through supporting information such as palm cards or signage etc will act to remind people of their roles.

Activity
Assume you are a floor or area warden as mentioned in an emergency procedures document. What is your role in an evacuation? Look this up in either your organisations emergency procedures manual or the emergency procedures manual you downloaded from an Australian University website.

=Contribute to post event activities= 

Other personnel in second response phase identified and supported
It is extremely important at the time of an emergency for the responding personnel (including facility staff and emergency services) to appreciate the likely magnitude and duration of the emergency and the potential for the emergency to escalate. Information about possible consequences and impacts will assist in preparing for an emergency by indicating the type and scale of resources required and determining appropriate emergency response procedures including the identification of relief personnel in preparation of a second response phase. The size of the response may be to extensive for the initial response team to complete their tasks before the emergency can be terminated. To combat fatigue and prepare for ongoing response for an extended period the available relief personnel are notified and briefed in preparation for the second response phase and so on as required. 

Contributions made to debriefing processes
Every emergency incident involves simultaneous response and recovery processes. During the early stages of an emergency, response activities dominate while recovery processes support response. Termination of the emergency declaration is the official recognition that the emergency phase of the incident has waned and the recovery process is dominant. Termination activities should concentrate on giving accurate information to people who need it most, and should begin as soon as the emergency phase of the operation is completed. Termination activities should include debriefing, post-incident analysis, identification of a recovery team or recovery plan and critical incident debriefing.

Debriefing
Debriefing should begin as soon as the emergency phase of the operation is completed. The purpose of the debriefing is to inform participants:
 * what happened
 * what is known about the status of the facility, including when operations will resume, or when a determination of a timeframe for resuming operations will be known
 * what is known about the condition, beyond the facility boundaries that may affect the recovery
 * what is known about the status of the facility populations including the type and extent of any injuries
 * where the injured were taken
 * how to access updates
 * what actions will be taken next

Post-incident analysis
Post-incident analysis is a reconstruction of the incident to establish a clear picture of events that took place during the emergency. As soon as is practical, the response team should construct a brief chronological overview of who did what, when, and where during the incident. Key topics for the post-incident analysis should include:

//Command and control//

 * Was the emergency response organised according to the existing emergency management plan procedures?
 * Did information pass through appropriate channels?
 * Were response objectives communicated effectively to field personnel who were expected to implement them?
 * Did the FECC integrate well with the external emergency agencies upon arrival, and throughout the incident?

//Emergency operations//

 * Did the FECC effectively order emergency procedures?
 * Did the emergency personnel implement these orders? What worked? What didn’t?
 * Were emergency procedures conducted in a timely and coordinated fashion?
 * Do revisions need to be made to emergency procedures?
 * Do additional emergency procedures need to be developed or modified?

//Resources//

 * Were human and material resources adequate to conduct the response effectively?
 * Are improvements needed to facilities or equipment?
 * Were mutual aid agreements implemented effectively?

//Support services//

 * Were support services adequate and provided in a timely manner?
 * What is needed to increase the provision of support to a necessary level?

//Plans and procedures//

 * Was the Emergency Management Plan and associated tactical procedures current?
 * Did they adequately cover notification, assessment, response, recovery, and termination?
 * Were roles and assignments clearly defined?
 * How will plans and procedures be upgraded to reflect successful and unsuccessful aspects of the emergency response?
 * What other procedures could have been in effect?
 * Are there any procedures that should be eliminated?
 * What additional protective measures could have been taken to eliminate the damage?
 * Have there been any changes in the facilities, equipment, or operations of the institution that warrant changes in the procedures for emergency management?

//Training//

 * Did this event highlight the need for additional basic or advanced training?

//Communication//

 * How well did internal and external communication plans work?
 * What should be clarified or changed?

//Legal//

 * Are there ongoing legal issues that need to be resolved?

//Recovery plan//
The timing for moving from a response focus to a recovery focus will depend on the nature and magnitude of the emergency, and damage to facility structures and infrastructure. Once the immediacy of the emergency subsides, efforts at returning the facility to normal operations begin. This process may be gradual and may take an extended period of time depending upon the extent of the damage to facility. The Recovery Plan, or a timetable for a Recovery Plan, should be communicated to all interested parties. It is possible that recovery may continue long after resumption of normal operations.

Critical incident stress debriefing
Critical incidents are events that endanger lives and evoke intense fear and shock. Unmitigated, such incidents have potential to interfere with emergency personnel functioning and to shorten careers by stress disability. Most emergency personnel do not develop post-traumatic disorders. For those who do, the effects can change lives. However, most emergency personnel do experience some stress that can compromise health post-event and manifest in absenteeism, diminished morale, substance use, or family and interpersonal conflicts, if left unnoticed Critical Incident Stress Debriefing services should be offered to all employees who were involved or who witnessed a critical incident. The Debrief is provided for the following purposes: After a Critical Incident, individuals may need counselling assistance in getting over such an experience. Their family and close friends may be good judges of when such additional assistance may be beneficial. Individuals should seek additional professional assistance when:
 * To provide professionally guided review of impact of the incident on the person’s life
 * To enable ventilation of emotions
 * To provide reassurance and support
 * To educate about trauma reactions
 * the intense feelings or physical sensations are too much to handle
 * if emotional levels are not returning to normal levels within a reasonable period of time
 * physical symptoms continue past a reasonable time
 * continuation of numbness and emptiness feelings
 * necessity to remain active in order to avoid thinking about the incident
 * continuation of nightmares and disturbed sleep
 * unavailability of other persons or groups with whom to share emotions
 * relationships and work is being affected as a result of the incident
 * increased intake of alcohol and/or other drugs following the incident
 * any other ongoing changes in emotions or behaviour that are causing concern.

//Activity//
Does your organisation have access to an Employee Assistance Program Service Provider? Who uses this service now and are they equipped to handle a major emergency at your workplace?

=Emergency response monitored and deficiencies addressed= 

Responses to emergencies monitored for efficiency and timeliness in consultation with stakeholders and as appropriate specialist advisors and agencies
The emergency plan should be tested when first developed, and then monitored at suitable intervals to enable deficiencies to be identified and corrected. The two usual methods of testing are desktop simulations and practical exercises and drills. Testing should consider all components of the plan, including the effectiveness of training. Monitoring is critical to managing the plan. Important activities in managing the plan include rehearsals, exercises and ongoing consultation and communication with facility personnel, the emergency services and the community. Audits of the emergency plan should also be conducted on a periodic basis to determine whether the system conforms to the stated objectives and has been properly implemented and managed. The frequency of audits should be guided by the nature of the facility and the results of previous audits. These activities can help to identify deficiencies in the emergency response plan, which can then be remedied. Reviews could also be initiated by: Reviews should also include an evaluation of the appropriateness of the objectives, targets and performance measures of the plan. 
 * changing legislation
 * advances in technology and equipment
 * changes in organisational directions
 * changes to products and activities
 * lessons from incidents
 * findings of audits, reporting and communication.

Results of monitoring documented and promptly and appropriately reported to managers and key personnel
Recommendations and results of monitoring are promptly reported to management and the plan should be updated when: 
 * testing and monitoring of the plan identifies short comings
 * modifications or alterations occur at the facility
 * an incident or near miss indicates the need to do so
 * changes to surrounding land use impacts upon the plan
 * changes occur that will impact on the plan, such as resources, safety system, personnel and contact numbers.

Areas for improvement in response identified and recommendations made for improvement
By constant monitoring, review, auditing and recommending improvements for approval to management and key personnel, the plan will remain a dynamic document, alert to the needs of all stakeholders and responsive to changing circumstances.

//Activity//
When was the last time your organisation’s emergency procedures manual and related documentation was reviewed and updated? Is it up-to-date? How often would you suggest a review take place?

=Summary= Emergency procedures are an essential part of work today given the potential threats to our safety that appear from many quarters (eg. natural disasters, terrorism, social unrest, gas/electricity/vehicles etc as well as more personal threats to our safety and wellbeing. The emergency procedure systems that you have accessed and studied should have provided you with many ideas to enhance your organisations’ emergency response capabilities that will go a long way to ensure you and your co-workers can address and in large measure be protected from the worst effects of emergencies. The emergency response exercise (evacuation) that you conducted/participated in should have displayed to you the necessity for having a system in place that manages the complexity of the response to such situations and will have stood you in good stead to react accordingly should a real-life emergency occur.